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was merely civil。 At Rome it was both civil and religious。 Among the
grievances under which the Plebeians suffered； three were felt as
peculiarly severe。 They were excluded from the highest magistracies； they
were excluded from all share in the public lands； and they were ground
down to the dust by partial and barbarous legislation touching pecuniary
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contracts。 The ruling class in Rome was a moneyed class； and it made and
administered the laws with a view solely to its own interest。 Thus the
relation between lender and borrower was mixed up with the relation
between sovereign and subject。 The great men held a large portion of the
community in dependence by means of advances at enormous usury。 The
law of debt； framed by creditors； and for the protection of creditors； was
the host horrible that has ever been known among men。 The liberty and
even the life of the insolvent were at the mercy of the Patrician money…
lenders。 Children often became slaves in consequence of the misfortunes
of their parents。 The debtor was imprisoned； not in a public jail under the
care of impartial public functionaries； but in a private workhouse
belonging to the creditor。 Frightful stories were told respecting these
dungeons。 It was said that torture and brutal violation were common； that
tight stocks； heavy chains； scanty measures of food； were used to punish
wretches guilty of nothing but poverty； and that brave soldiers； whose
breasts were covered with honorable scars； were often marked still more
deeply on the back by the scourges of high…born usurers。
The Plebeians were； however； not wholly without constitutional rights。
From an early period they had been admitted to some share of political
power。 They were enrolled each in his century； and were allowed a share；
considerable though not proportioned to their numerical strength； in the
disposal of those high dignities from which they were themselves
excluded。 Thus their position bore some resemblance to that of the Irish
Catholics during the interval between the year 1792 and the year 1829。
The Plebeians had also the privilege of annually appointing officers；
named Tribunes； who had no active share in the government of the
commonwealth； but who； by degree； acquired a power formidable even to
the ablest and most resolute Consuls and Dictators。 The person of the
Tribune was inviolable； and； though he could directly effect little； he could
obstruct everything。
During more than a century after the institution of the Tribuneship； the
Commons struggled manfully for the removal of the grievances under
which they labored； and； in spite of many checks and reverses； succeeded
in wringing concession after concession from the stubborn aristocracy。 At
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length in the year of the city 378； both parties mustered their whole
strength for their last and most desperate conflict。 The popular and active
Tribune； Caius Licinius； proposed the three memorable laws which are
called by his name； and which were intended to redress the three great
evils of which the Plebeians complained。 He was supported； with eminent
ability and firmness； by his colleague； Lucius Sextius。 The struggle
appears to have been the fiercest that every in any community terminated
without an appeal to arms。 If such a contest had raged in any Greek city；
the streets would have run with blood。 But； even in the paroxysms of
faction； the Roman retained his gravity； his respect for law； and his
tenderness for the lives of his fellow citizens。 Year after year Licinius and
Sextius were re 雔 ected Tribunes。 Year after year； if the narrative which
has come down to us is to be trusted； they continued to exert； to the full
extent； their power of stopping the whole machine of government。 No
curule magistrates could be chosen； no military muster could be held。 We
know too little of the state of Rome in those days to be able to conjecture
how； during that long anarchy； the peace was kept； and ordinary justice
administered between man and man。 The animosity of both parties rose to
the greatest height。 The excitement； we may well suppose； would have
been peculiarly intense at the annual election of Tribunes。 On such
occasions there can be little doubt that the great families did all that could
be done； by threats and caresses； to break the union of the Plebeians。 That
union； however； proved indissoluble。 At length the good cause triumphed。
The Licinian laws were carried。 Lucius Sextius was the first Plebeian
Consul； Caius Licinius the third。
The results of this great change were singularly happy and glorious。
Two centuries of prosperity； harmony； and victory followed the
reconciliation of the orders。 Men who remembered Rome engaged in
waging petty wars almost within sight of the Capitol lived to see her the
mistress of Italy。 While the disabilities of the Plebeians continued； she was
scarcely able to maintain her ground against the Volscians and Hernicans。
When those disabilities were removed； she rapidly became more than a
match for Carthage and Macedon。
During the great Licinian contest the Plebeian poets were； doubtless；
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not silent。 Even in modern times songs have been by no means without
influence on public affairs； and we may therefore infer that； in a society
where printing was unknown and where books were rare； a pathetic or
humorous party…ballad must have produced effects such as we can but
faintly conceive。 It is certain that satirical poems were common at Rome
from a very early period。 The rustics； who lived at a distance from the seat
of government； and took little part in the strife of factions； gave vent to
their petty local animosities in coarse Fescennine verse。 The lampoons of
the city were doubtless of a higher order； and their sting was early felt by
the nobility。 For in the Twelve Tables； long before the time of the Licinian
laws； a severe punishment was denounced against the citizen who should
compose or recite verses reflecting on another。 Satire is； indeed； the only
sort of composition in which the Latin poets； whose works have come
down to us； were not mere imitators of foreign models； and it is therefore
the only sort of composition in which they have never been rivalled。 It was
not； like their tragedy； their comedy； their epic and lyric poetry； a hothouse
plant which； in return for assiduous and skilful culture； gave only scanty
and sickly fruits。 It was hardy and full of sap； and in all the various juices
which it yielded might be distinguished the flavor of the Ausonian soil。
‘‘Satire；'' said Quinctilian； with just pride； ‘‘is all our own。'' Satire sprang；
in truth； naturally from the constitution of the Roman govern